Evidence for the Resurrection: Analyzing Possible Explanations

Over a series of several posts, I have laid out the evidence for four historical facts that are accepted by a consensus of scholars. They are:

1) Jesus died by crucifixion.

2) Shortly after his death, Jesus' followers had real experiences that they interpreted to be appearances of the risen Jesus.

3) As a result, their lives were transformed to the point of bring willing to die for their belief in the resurrection.

4) Jesus' brother James and the Apostle Paul, skeptics and opponents of Jesus, became followers of Jesus after post-resurrection appearances and ultimately died for their testimony of the resurrection.

I also explained evidence for a fifth historical fact that is accepted by a majority of scholars, that the tomb where Jesus was buried was later found empty. While I feel this fact would clinch the case for the resurrection, I will be making a very strong argument without it. If you are willing to grant these historical facts, please read on, but if you are skeptical of these "bedrock" facts, please review the previous posts and my post on the reliability of the New Testament before continuing.

A key distinction between Christianity and other religions is that it hinges on a specific event in history. Something happened in first century Judea that led to the previously mentioned bedrock historical facts. We are going to examine several competing hypothesis to see whether they coherently and comprehensively explain the facts of history. So, let's get started!

Hypothesis #1 - Legendary Development

This is a pretty popular theory that suggests that Jesus didn't really rise from the dead, but this story slowly developed over time. The resurrection is just a myth that, while it may be inspiring, can be discarded along with other ancient legends. Unfortunately, this contradicts evidence that the resurrection reports appeared soon after Jesus' death, far too early to allow for legendary development. The church creed that Paul quotes in 1 Corinthians 15:3-7 contains the important details of the resurrection and likely dates to within three years of the event.

Furthermore, the legendary development theory fails to account for the transformation of Jesus' brother James and the Apostle Paul. Would skeptics and opponents of Jesus be willing to completely alter their lives and ultimately die for a legend? Additional, Jesus' followers suffered and died for what they claimed to see and hear, not for cleverly developed myths (1 John 1:3, 2 Peter 1:16).

Hypothesis #2 - Deliberate Deception

The next hypothesis is the cousin of the first, but instead of developing over time, the resurrection accounts were intentionally fabricated by the disciples. Given the immensity of the eternal promises secured by the resurrection, such deception would be one of the cruelest plots ever foisted upon mankind. It would be completely out of character with the apostles' letters to the early church, which exhorted believers to "not love with words or tongue but with actions and truth." ( 1 John 3:18). It would be odd for the same disciples to die for their testimony of an event they invented. It would be even stranger for Jesus' brother and Paul to be persuaded by such a lie and even lay down their lives for it. This theory simply fails to explain the transformation of Jesus' followers and opponents that occurred after real experiences that they interpreted to be post-resurrection appearances.

The deliberate deception hypothesis could be further developed to include the conjecture that the disciples stole Jesus' body prior to proclaiming the resurrection. To steal the body, the disciples would have needed to overpower the guards posted at the tomb (Matthew 27:62-68). The passage doesn't specify whether the guard was Roman or Jewish, but in either case it seems unlikely that the same men who deserted Jesus at his arrest would attempt such a risky theft and one is still left with the problem of explaining their transformation and martyrdom.

Hypothesis #3 - Hallucinations

A popular theory is that Jesus' followers had hallucinations that they interpreted to be post-resurrection appearances. There are some serious problems with this explanation. First, Jesus is reported to have appeared to different groups on multiple occasions (Matthew 28:8-10, 16-20, Luke 24:13-53, John 20:19-31, 21:1-14, 1 Corinthians 15:5-8). These reports contradict the science of hallucinations. 

First, most psychologists reject the possibility of mass hallucinations. Although Leonard Zusne suggest that mass hallucinations could occur under conditions of "expectation and excitement," the condition of the disciples was the exact opposite (Habermas). They were depressed and not expecting a crucified and resurrected Messiah. Not to mention, opponents like Paul and James would have neither excitement nor expectation.

Second, accounts of the post-resurrection appearances describe Jesus eating and asking his followers to touch him. He says, "Look at my hands and my feet. It is I myself! Touch me and see; a ghost does not have flesh and bones, as you see I have." (Luke 24:39). Hallucination theories fail to account for such details.

Finally, hallucinations do not generally transform lives. Studies indicate that even those who hallucinate often disavow the experiences when confronted with those who did not see the same thing (Lambert). However, the historical record shows no evidence of anyone retracting their testimony of the resurrection. Instead, it shows evidence that witnesses of the post-resurrection appearances were willing to suffer and die believing in the reality of these experiences.

Hypothesis #4 - Swoon Theory

The swoon theory posits that Jesus never died, but merely fainted and was later revived in the tomb. Not only has this theory been rejected as implausible by medical experts (Edwards), it is hard to imagine a severely wounded Jesus, in need of urgent medical attention, inspiring transformation in the lives of his followers, skeptics, and opponents.

Hypothesis #5 - Wrong Tomb or Mass Burial

Some skeptics propose that Jesus' followers may have gone to the wrong tomb and, finding it empty, erroneously assumed a resurrection. This theory ignores the unanimous gospel record that Jesus was buried in the tomb of Joseph of Arimathea, a well known religious leader at the time. If the disciples had gone to the wrong tomb, their error could have been easily corrected by skeptics and opponents of the resurrection. Furthermore, it ignores that Jesus' followers and some opponents had real experiences with the risen Christ that sparked their transformation. The historical record shows they experienced more than just going to the wrong empty tomb.

Other skeptics propose that Jesus was buried in a mass grave, so his body could never be located and the resurrection accounts were either deliberately fabricated or developed over time. Here we run into a recurring problem. This theory fails to explain real post-resurrection experiences that sparked transformation in both followers and opponents, ultimately leading to martyrdom.

Hypothesis #6 - Anything but a Resurrection

It has been my observation from watching debates between Christians and non-Christians (usually atheists), that the skeptic will often refuse to provide a theory to explain the historical bedrock facts that support the resurrection. Their response is essentially, "We don't need to provide an alternative explanation to reject the resurrection. We reject the resurrection because resurrections don't happen." Notice that theory is not based on an evaluation of the evidence, but on a prior commitment to naturalism. Before even starting the investigation, supernatural explanations have already been eliminated from contention. Despite claiming to be open-minded and rational, such a response betrays a mind that is only open to some possibilities.

What about the Empty Tomb?

Thus far, I have not referred to the empty tomb when explaining problems with alternative theories to the resurrection. This has been intentional to demonstrate that these theories can be convincingly refuted without granting the empty tomb. However, if the empty tomb is accepted, it is the nail in the coffin for these alternative theories, pun intended.

If the resurrection accounts were myths or fabrications, Jesus' body would have still been in the tomb, unless someone is willing to accept the highly improbable and problematic suggestions that Jesus' disciples stole the body or went to the wrong tomb. Likewise, if the post-resurrection appearances were mere hallucinations, the tomb would not have been empty. The only alternative theory that could account for the empty tomb is the swoon theory, but this fails for both medical and logical reasons. It is also important to note that the resurrection claims originated early and in Jerusalem, where the tomb was located. If the tomb was not empty, opponents of Christianity could have squashed the resurrection "myth" by simply producing Jesus' remains.

Hypothesis #7 - He is Risen. He is Risen Indeed!

There is only one theory that coherently and comprehensively explains all the historical data, the claim that Jesus has risen from the grave. It explains why Jesus' followers reported real-life resurrection experiences that transformed them from fearful deserters to bold martyrs. It explains why Jesus own brother, James, and zealous opponent, Paul, became devoted followers who were willing to lay down their lives for their testimony of the resurrection. It explains why women were uniformly reported to be the first witnesses of the resurrection, despite the skepticism this would bring to the report. It explains how the resurrection accounts originated when there was no pre-existing expectation of a crucified and resurrected Messiah. Of course, it explains why the tomb was empty.

Remember, this is only the minimal facts argument, based only on historical facts agreed to by a consensus of scholars. Further arguments could be made to support the resurrection. For example, the Old Testament contains scores of prophecies and an overall narrative that confirms Jesus' identity as Messiah.

Why Evidence for the Resurrection Matters

In the introduction to this series, I shared one of my favorite quotes from C.S. Lewis: "Christianity, if false, is of no importance, and, if true, of infinite importance, the only thing it cannot be is moderately important." If Jesus has not risen from the dead, then the central claims and teachings of Christianity are false, and should have no bearing on our lives. The Apostle Paul makes the same point, writing, "If Christ has not been raised, our preaching is useless and so is your faith." (1 Corinthians 15:14). If Jesus has not been raised, Christianity may provide some moral platitudes and cultural traditions, but is not worth following with all our heart and soul.

However, if Christ has been raised, then the central claims of Christianity are true and the staggering promises of the forgiveness of sin and the gift of eternal life are too important to ignore. The author of Hebrews writes, "If...every violation and disobedience received its just punishment, how shall we escape if we ignore such a great salvation?" (Hebrews 2:2-3). If Jesus has risen, the only right response is to repent from our sins and believe and follow him.

A Word of Encouragement for Believers

Perhaps there are some believers reading this series who feel that they don't need evidence in order to believe in the resurrection or even that seeking evidence to support our beliefs demonstrates a lack of faith and spirit of unbelief. Allow me to offer a couple of reasons why knowing evidence for the resurrection is beneficial for all Christians.

Sometimes, we have questions about or may be challenged by skeptics on secondary issues. These could include questions about human origins, tough teachings in the Old Testament, or the existence of evil and suffering in the world. These are important issues to wrestle with and should be taken seriously, but our faith does not ultimately depend on our ability to answer them. In some cases we may have to live with some lingering questions and uncertainty, but that is when we can fix our eyes on Jesus, the cornerstone of our faith, with complete certainty that he has defeated death.

Some Christians might discourage seeking evidence, thinking with good intentions that faith is stronger when someone believes God without evidence. Also, it isn't hard to find mocking memes from skeptics that make statements such as "Faith is belief without evidence." Both positions miss the mark of the Biblical teaching on faith. The disciples appealed to their eye-witness testimony, miracles, and fulfilled Old Testament prophecy - all forms of evidence - to convince others of the resurrection. Jesus performed miracles to demonstrate his identity and even encouraged people to believe in him on account of the evidence of his works (Matthew 11:1-6, Luke 7:48-53, John 14:11). Furthermore, we are called to "Always be prepared to give an answer to everyone who asks you to give the reason for the hope that you have." ( 1 Peter 3:15). You may not need evidence to believe in the resurrection, but you can be prepared to answer the questions of friends and family members, particularly young people who are leaving the faith in part because the church has not been able to answer their intellectual doubts.

A Word of Encouragement for Non-Believers

I have been engaged in apologetics long enough to know that not everyone is going to agree with my arguments. However, I have also learned that skeptics often reject Christianity without having investigated the evidence, with a prior commitment to a naturalistic worldview, and being swayed by mockery and rhetoric. If this is you, I would encourage you to take a fresh look at the evidence for the resurrection and the truth of Christianity. Read some books on the subject, which will go much deeper than a single blog series. Set aside any naturalistic bias, tune out the mocking voices of atheist memes, and be willing to follow the evidence wherever it leads.

However, be forewarned that despite the focus of this series on evidence, the journey to faith in Christ is more than an intellectual exercise. It is also an examination of the heart. It is a call to abandon our pursuit of our own desires, where we sit on the throne of our hearts, to turn and follow Jesus with a desire to do his will. No, evidence alone will not be enough. We need God to give us a new heart that desires to know and follow him. I am confident that if you ask God to answer your intellectual doubts and give you a heart to follow him, he will meet you along the way. May God bless your journey!

Sources:

Edwards, M.D., William, Gabel, Mdiv, Wesley, and Hosmer, M.S., Floyd. "On the Physical Death of Jesus Christ". Journal of the American Medical Association, March 21, 1986.

Habermas, Gary. "Hallucination Theories to Explain Jesus' Resurrection." Christian Research Journal, Vol. 23, No. 4, 2001.

Lambert, Shea. "Hallucinations and the Post-Death Appearances of Jesus." September 20, 2000, p. 2-9.

Evidence for the Resurrection: The Transformation of Jesus' Opponents

One could potentially develop a theory to explain how Jesus’ disciples could have fabricated or imagined the post-resurrection appearances. Perhaps, in a state of emotional distress, they had hallucinations that they mistook for reality. Maybe they hastily believed rumors of his resurrection because they were still holding onto hope in their hearts that Jesus was the Messiah, or perhaps they just fabricated the whole thing. Such speculation is why the next historical bedrock fact is so important. The previously mentioned theories may work with Jesus’ followers, though they still fail for reasons that I will discuss in the conclusion of this series, but they completely fall flat with his skeptics and enemies who later became his followers. Today, we are going to look at the transformation of two people who had no incentive to preach that Jesus had risen, unless they were reporting what they had actually seen.

We start with Jesus’ own younger brother, James (see Matthew 13:55-56 and Mark 6:3 for identification in the gospels). Along with the rest of his family, James’ was skeptical of Jesus’ messianic ministry and his claim to be the Son of God. While he was ministering from house to house, Jesus’ family “went to take charge of him, for they said, ‘He is out of his mind.’” (Mark 3:21). Later, Jesus’ brothers almost mockingly encouraged him to go to Jerusalem to perform miracles at the Jewish Feast of Tabernacles, but in reality, “even his own brothers did not believe in him.” (John 7:5). I think that it seems pretty intuitive that Jesus’ brothers would be skeptical of his claims. After all, would you believe that your sibling was the Son of God?

However, after Jesus’ death and reported resurrection, Jesus’ mother and brothers “joined together constantly in prayer” with his other followers (Acts 1:14). James became a leader in the early church, giving a speech at the important Council of Jerusalem, which stated that Gentile Christians did not need to be circumcised (Acts 15:12-21). The Apostle Paul also acknowledged that he traveled to Jerusalem a few years after his conversion and saw “James, the Lord’s brother.” (Galatians 1:19). James even wrote the Book of James, where he identifies himself as “a servant of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ.” (James 1:1).

What could cause this radical transformation? It seems like a reasonable response if the early church creed from 1 Corinthians 15 is correct: “[Jesus] was buried,… he was raised on the third day according to the Scriptures…Then he appeared to James.” (1 Corinthians 15:4,7).

James went on to prove the sincerity of this transformation by dying for his belief in the risen Christ, likely around 62 A.D. James’ death is attested to by the Jewish historian Josephus in an account that, unlike another passage we examined, is not contested. It is also important to note that this report of James’ martyrdom came from a non-Christian source, only strengthening its reliability.

“Festus was now dead, and Albinus was but upon the road; so he assembled the Sanhedrin of judges, and brought before them the brother of Jesus, who was called Christ, whose name was James, and some others, [or, some of his companions]; and when he had formed an accusation against them as breakers of the law, he delivered them to be stoned.”¹

James’ death is further attested to in Eusebius' Ecclesiastical History (Book 2, 23:8-18) and The First Apocalypse of James. You can check these out on your own if you would like to dig further.

While James’ transformation from skeptic to believer was dramatic, the Apostle Paul’s sudden change from a staunch enemy of the early church to arguably the greatest missionary in church history is even more astounding. Known as Saul before his conversion, he was a leader in the stoning of Stephen, the first Christian martyr (Acts 7:56-57), and tried to “destroy the church” by “going from house to house, [dragging] off men and women and putting them in prison.” (Acts 8:3). Looking back on this period of his life, Paul lamented that he “[did] not even deserve to be called an apostle, because [he] persecuted the church of God.” (1 Corinthians 15:9). Being very zealous in his persecution of the church and observance of the law, Saul the Pharisee held an honored spot in Jewish society (Philippians 3:5-6).

Yet, something happened that indisputably turned Paul’s life upside down. Later, speaking before a crown in Jerusalem, Paul described the event in his own words:

“About noon as I came near Damascus, suddenly a bright light from heaven flashed around me.  

I fell to the ground and heard a voice say to me, ‘Saul! Saul! Why do you persecute me?’

‘Who are you, Lord?’ I asked.

‘I am Jesus of Nazareth, whom you are persecuting,’ he replied. My companions saw the light, but they did not understand the voice of him who was speaking to me.

‘What shall I do, Lord?’ I asked.

‘Get up,’ the Lord said, ‘and go into Damascus. There you will be told all that you have been assigned to do.’ My companions led me by the hand into Damascus, because the brilliance of the light had blinded me.” (Acts 22:6-11)

If there is any doubt that Paul considered this to be a post-resurrection appearance, and not just a vision or hallucination, he added his name to the list of eye-witnesses of the resurrection in the early church creed that we have already discussed: “Last of all he appeared to me also, as to one abnormally born.” (1 Corinthians 15:8).  

As a result, Paul’s life was radically changed. Instead of trying to destroy the church he became completely devoted to spreading the good news of resurrection of Jesus. Experiencing a total change in heart, he claimed, “I consider my life worth nothing to me; my only aim is to finish the race and complete the task the Lord Jesus has given me—the task of testifying to the good news of God’s grace.” (Acts 20:24). He proved these words true by enduring hardships, troubles, beatings, floggings, imprisonments, shipwrecks, sleepless nights, threats from all sides, and hunger for the sake of the gospel (2 Corinthians 6:4-5, 11:23-28). In the end, he paid the ultimate price by sacrificing his life as a martyr.

Tradition holds that Paul was beheaded during the reign of Emperor Nero (64 – 67 A.D.). While imprisoned in Rome, he hints at his impending death, writing, “I am already being poured out like a drink offering, and the time for my departure is near. I have fought the good fight, I have finished the race, I have kept the faith.” (2 Timothy 4:6-7). Paul’s death is reported by Clement of Rome in the early first century:

Through envy Paul, too, showed by example the prize that is given to patience: seven times was he cast into chains; he was banished; he was stoned; having become a herald, both in the East and in the West, he obtained the noble renown due to his faith; and having preached righteousness to the whole world, and having come to the extremity of the West, and having borne witness before rulers, he departed at length out of the world, and went to the holy place, having become the greatest example of patience.²
 
If you are interested, you can examine further reports of Paul’s martyrdom in Ignatius’s Letter to the Ephesians (12:2), Polycarp’s Letter of the Philippians (9:1-2), Eusebius’ Ecclesiastical History (Book 2,25:4), Tertullian’s Scorpiace (15:5-6), and Irenaeus’ Against Heresies (Book 3,1:1).

The record of history seems clear, both James and Paul were initially in a position of either skepticism or opposition to Jesus’ claim to be the Messiah. However, their lives were radically transformed to the point of being willing to lay them down for the message that Jesus had risen from the grave, confirming his identity as the Son of God and the efficacy of his death for the forgiveness of sins. Theories of fabrication, conspiracy, and wishful thinking simply won’t work to explain the historical transformation of these men. They were predisposed against the idea that Jesus would rise from the dead. In Paul’s case, he enjoyed a privileged position in Jewish society, and suffered tremendous loss in preaching the gospel and Christ’s resurrection. What could motivate both of these men to completely reverse position and give their lives to serve Jesus, with no logical explanation of ulterior motive? I see no other logical explanation than what is offered in 1 Corinthians 15 – “Then he appeared to James, then to all the apostles, and last of all he appeared to me (Paul) also, as to one abnormally born.” (1 Corinthians 15:7-8).

SOURCES:

1)    Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, 20:197-203, Retrieved from http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=J.+AJ+20.197&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0146

2)    Clement of Rome, The First Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians, 5:5-7, Retrieved from http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/1clement-hoole.html

Evidence for the Resurrection: The Transformation of the Disciples

Would you be willing to die for something that you knew was a lie? I don’t mean would you be willing to die for something you strongly believed in, but would you be willing to die for something you knew to be false from firsthand experience? We will return to these questions later in this discussion.

In the last two posts, I argued that there is sufficient evidence to assert that Jesus died by crucifixion and that his followers had real experiences that they interpreted to be the risen Jesus. We now continue with the third historical bedrock fact, that Jesus’ followers were transformed as a result of their post-resurrection experiences, even to the point of being willing to die for their faith in the resurrection. The New Testament clearly illustrates a radical change in the disciples that occurred after their claim to have seen the risen Jesus. If you are skeptical of this data, I would encourage you to first read my post on the historical reliability of the New Testament before continuing with this post.

Prior to Jesus’ crucifixion, the disciples were not expecting the Messiah to die, let alone rise from the dead. After recognizing that he was the Christ, Peter rebuked Jesus for predicting his death and resurrection (Matthew 16:21-23, Mark 9:31-33). Elsewhere, the disciples didn’t even understand Jesus’ clear prediction that he would die and rise again (Luke 9:45, 19:31-34). Furthermore, the disciples fled out of fear when Jesus was arrested and Peter denied Jesus three times while he was on trial before the Jewish leaders (Matthew 26:29-75, Mark 14:66-72, Luke 22:54-62, John 18:15-18, 25:27). While we tend to focus on Peter’s denial, the other disciples failed to live up to their promise to follow him unto death if necessary (Matthew 26:35, Mark 14:31). The picture that we have before the resurrection is of a group of men that didn’t understand Jesus’ teachings on the crucifixion and resurrection and failed in the hour of greatest pressure for fear of their own safety. Due to the criterion of embarrassment, there is no reason to believe that these details were fabricated.

After the disciples’ claimed post-resurrection experiences, their behavior was radically transformed as they fearlessly proclaimed the gospel around the known world. Very soon after the crucifixion, they were preaching in the streets of Jerusalem that Jesus had risen from the dead (Acts 2:14-41, Acts 3:12-26). This is the same city where Jesus was crucified, where the religious leaders would certainly want to punish those carrying on his influence. When pressured by these leaders, the disciples spoke boldly and refused to stop preaching the gospel (Acts 4:1-21). Despite facing persecution (Acts 8:1-3) and imprisonment (Acts 5:17-42), the disciples preached the gospel wherever they went (Acts 8:4) and lived a lifestyle of radical generosity (Acts 2:42-47, Acts 4:32-37). Peter and John’s comments before the Sanhedrin when ordered to stop speaking in the name of Jesus sum up the transformation that occurred in these men.

“Judge for yourselves whether it is right in God’s sight to obey you rather than God. For we cannot help speaking about what we have seen and heard.” (Acts 4:19-20)

The disciples’ willingness to face suffering and persecution for the sake of the gospel message is confirmed in other books of the New Testament. Peter writes to the church to encourage Christians to “rejoice that [they] participate in the sufferings of Christ” (1 Peter 4:12) and that they should not be ashamed to suffer as Christians, but should “praise God that [they] bear that name.” (1 Peter 4:16). In the book of Revelation, John identified himself as “your brother and companion in the suffering and kingdom and patient endurance that are ours in Jesus” and explains that he “was on the island of Patmos (in exile) because of the word of God and the testimony of Jesus.” (Revelation 1:9). It is clear that the disciples were no longer a fearful band of deserters, but willing to suffer for their testimony that Jesus was the risen Lord.

Early extra-biblical sources confirm that Jesus’ followers faced persecution for their faith, which centered on the resurrection. In a passage that has been cited in previous posts, the historian Tacitus described Emperor Nero’s treatment of Christians after the Great Fire of Rome in 64 A.D.

“Nero fastened the guilt and inflicted the most exquisite tortures on a class hated for their abominations, called Christians by the populace.”¹

Another Roman historian, Suetonius, confirms the persecution of Christians under Nero and also describes their harsh treatment under Emperor Claudius, who reigned from 41 – 54 A.D., in the first decades after the claimed resurrection.

“Because the Jews at Rome caused constant disturbances at the instigation of Chrestus (Christ), he (Claudius) expelled them from the city (Rome).”²

 “Nero inflicted punishment on the Christians, a sect given to a new and mischievous religious belief.”³

Beyond this evidence of a general atmosphere of persecution, there is evidence that the disciples were willing to face death for proclaiming that Jesus had risen from the dead. I have always found the martyrdom of the apostles to be highly compelling evidence for the resurrection. We return to the question, “Would you be willing to die for a lie?” However, a note of clarification is required here. Some might point out that a person’s willingness to die for their beliefs does not prove that their beliefs are true. After all, Muslim jihadists are willing to die to advance the cause of Islam and Buddhist monks are willing to set themselves on fire to protest oppression, yet those worldviews contradict Christianity in important areas. I agree with this objection, except that the apostles were not just dying for a strongly held set of beliefs that had been passed down to them, but for their testimony about what they had seen with their own eyes. If I were to die as a result of preaching the gospel, it would only prove that I sincerely and deeply believed in the Christian message, which ultimately I have received second hand. What they disciples were willing to do is different. They were willing to die for preaching that Jesus had risen from the dead and they were in the position to know whether this was true or false. If Jesus had not risen, they would have died for something they knew was a lie.

According to church history, all the apostles were martyred, except for John, who died in exile on the island of Patmos. There is not enough historical evidence to confirm this tradition, however there is evidence to support the assertion that Peter, Paul, James the brother of Jesus, and James the son of Zebedee were martyred, that Thomas was most probably martyred, and that Andrew may have been martyred.⁴ The lack of evidence for the other apostles doesn’t mean that they didn't die as martyrs, but that we don’t have sufficient historical data to ultimately determine how they died. However, we do know that there is evidence for a general atmosphere of persecution and that there is no historical evidence that any of the disciples ever recanted of their testimony that Jesus had risen from the dead.

In the next post, I am going to focus on the transformed lives of two of Jesus’ opponents, his brother James and the Apostle Paul, so I am not going to focus on the evidence for their martyrdoms in this post. Instead, I would like to put forward evidence to support that James the son of Zebedee and Peter died for their testimony of the resurrection.

In the book of Acts, the historian Luke writes, “King Herod arrested some who belonged to the church, intending to persecute them. He had James, the brother of John, put to death with the sword.” (Acts 12:1-2). It is believed that James’ death occurred in 44 A.D and James only appears in two later apocryphal writings, Acts of St. James and The Apostolic History of Abdias.⁵ His absence in other writings suggests that it was established early in church history that James had in fact been killed by the sword.

Peter is believed to have been crucified upside down during the reign of Nero, between 64 – 67 A.D. Interesting circumstantial evidence to support Peter’s death is Jesus’ prediction of this fate: 

“‘Very truly I tell you, when you were younger you dressed yourself and went where you wanted; but when you are old you will stretch out your hands, and someone else will dress you and lead you where you do not want to go.’ Jesus said this to indicate the kind of death by which Peter would glorify God.” (John 21:18-19). 

The gospel of John is believed to have been written between 70 – 90 A.D., which places it after Peter’s death. Whether you believe that Jesus’ words were prophetically spoken during a post-resurrection appearance or merely invented after the fact, it would be odd to include them if Peter hadn’t actually died as a martyr. 

Peter’s death is confirmed by Clement of Rome in The First Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians, likely written in the late first century.

“But let us pass from ancient examples, and come unto those who have in the times nearest to us, wrestled for the faith. Let us take the noble examples of our own generation. Through jealousy and envy the greatest and most just pillars of the Church were persecuted, and came even unto death. Let us place before our eyes the good Apostles. Peter, through unjust envy, endured not one or two but many labours, and at last, having delivered his testimony, departed unto the place of glory due to him.”⁶  

Peter’s martyrdom is further corroborated by Ignatius in his Epistle to the Smyrnaeans, written in the early second century.

For myself, I am convinced and believe that even after the resurrection he was in the flesh. Indeed, when he came to Peter and his friends, he said to them, ‘take hold of me, touch me and see that I am not a bodiless ghost.’ And they at once touched him and were convinced, clutching his body and his very breath. For this reason they despised death itself, and proved its victor.”⁷

 

Through several New Testament documents and extra-Biblical sources, we have a clear picture of the transformation of Peter from someone who rebuked Jesus for predicting his death and fearfully denied him during his trial to a bold leader of the early church, who fearlessly proclaimed the resurrection in the face of imprisonment, persecution, and ultimately death. We have good evidence that James son of Zebedee met a similar fate. While we may not know the details of how they died, we have strong evidence that the other disciples were similarly transformed and boldly testified to the resurrection in a hostile environment of general pressure and persecution. Something happened after Jesus’ death to cause this dramatic turn in the disciples. Any theory about what happened after the crucifixion must account for this radical transformation.

Sources:

1)    Tacitus, Annals 15.44, cited in Strobel, Lee. The Case for Christ, Zondervan, 1998, p. 82.

2)    Suetonius, Life of Claudius, 25:4, cited in Wallace, J. Warner. “Is there any Evidence for Jesus Outside the Bible?” Retrieved from https://coldcasechristianity.com/writings/is-there-any-evidence-for-jesus-outside-the-bible/

3)    Suetonius, Lives of the Caesars, 26:2, cited in Wallace, J. Warner. “Is there any Evidence for Jesus Outside the Bible?” Retrieved from https://coldcasechristianity.com/writings/is-there-any-evidence-for-jesus-outside-the-bible/

4)    McDowell, Sean. “Did the Apostles Really Die as Martyrs for their Faith?” Retrieved from https://www.oneplace.com/ministries/bible-answer-man/read/articles/did-the-apostles-really-die-as-martyrs-for-their-faith-by-sean-mcdowell-17589.html

5)    Ibid.

6)    Clement of Rome, The First Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians, 5:1-4, Retrieved from http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/1clement-hoole.html

7)    Ignatius, Epistle of Ignatius to the Smyrnaeans, 3:1-2, Retrieved from https://www.orderofstignatius.org/files/Letters/Ignatius_to_Smyrnaeans.pdf